Techniques Used in Mountain Painted with Turmeric

 Abstract 

This research work entitled Techniques Used in cultural translation: A case Mountain Painted with Turmeric focuses on analyzing   techniques used in cultural translation. The text, Mountain Painted with Turmeric is a translated text of Lil Bahadur Chettri ‘Basain,. It aims at analyzing different techniques used by translator in cultural words translation.  Translation begins with the very day of civilization. The language itself is translation of thought process. as translation helps one ideas into another understanding languages, language helps to presents abstract thought in understandable signs. The communication starts with translation It uncovers the some specific techniques used by translator for cultural translation. The culture si deep rotted practice of humankind. The way of living, social background, the thought process ideology of living differs the culture. There are several specific terminologies  that is quite difficult to have proper equivalence. The translators are found in throat cut problems in translating process. The theoretical study of translation has come up with several techniques in translation process of cultural words. It intends to excavate the techniquesn used by translator to translate  Nepali culture specific terms into English., Theoretical analysis of translated text is basic methodology.  . It is mainly based on a thorough textual reading, library consultation, and criticism, and a wide range of other related reference materials for the justification of the hypothesis It helps to shed the light on the readers to understand thecniques used in translation of cultural words.  It mainly limits itself to the techniques used in translation from Nepali to English. The researcher does not go through any primary data and its methodology rather depends on larger amount of secondary data available upon library research and its consultation.  The inadequacy of relevant materials is another aspect of the limitation of the study.

Introduction 

Translation is a linguistic activity. It most probably belongs to semiotics as it highly uses linguistic elements like phonemes morphemes and semantics. The variation in linguistic aspects creates challenges in translation. As one is unable to cope with those challenges, translation laps the originality of text. Therefore, one should be very careful while translating the text. The translation of cultural word is also one of the challenging tasks. If it is not addressed, translation loses its beauty. In Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of current English  the word 'translation' has been defined as "the process of changing something that is written or spoken into another language" or "a text or work that has been changed from one language into another” (1382).

Jeremy Munday defines translation as process and product. The process of translation involves the act of creating new TL text from SL. He believes translation should be judged from two different aspects: product and process. Product means outcome of a text after translation whereas process refers to method of translation. in translation process, different methods are used, the linguistic component may be  changed.(6). Nida opines translation as a breakdown of oldness of SL (decomposition) and creation of new things from old thing as recreation.(68-9). In Some of Peter Newmark’s Translation Categories Revisited, Albrecht Neubert examines Newmark’s concept. He views translation in two different ways. First, it has essence of text. Secondly, it gets changes according to function-ability. He further opines translation as mediator in between SL and TL. Therefore, there can be shift in text. It is not a problem rather it is natural though it looks unnatural. A translator has intended for translation. He wants to clarify complete meaning of translated text. A text is itself subjected in translated text. A text becomes all in all.it tries to create original sense of flavor (69-71).

Translation and culture are interrelated to each other. Translators translate any text based on related culture. It means no translation process is successful if the translators fail to translate the culture. A translator should not just translate the Source Language words ignoring the context, situation and the culture associated with language.

The concept of 'culture ' has been the concern of many different disciplines such as philosophy, sociology, anthropology, literature and cultural studies, and the definition offered in these fields vary according to the particular frame of reference invoked. Two basic views of culture have emerged the humanistic concept of culture and the anthological concept of culture. The humanistic view of culture captures the 'cultural heritage' as a model of refinement, an exclusive collection of a community's masterpieces in literature, fine arts, music, etc. The anthropological concept of culture refers to the overall way of life of a community or society, i.e. all those traditional, explicit and implicit designs for living which act as potential guides for the behaviors of members of the culture. 

 

Newmark defines culture as the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses particular language as its means of expression (94). More specially, he distinguishes culture from universal and personal language. Cultural language is spoken in particular speech community. Our culture shapes language and our language shapes reality. Therefore, there is inseparable relationship between languages. Translation can also help significantly to the spread of world culture around the globe. We have many examples like MunaMadan, ShirishkoPhool, etc. translated into English, which has made possible for the speakers of English to know the various aspects of the Nepalese society and culture. Translation helps people to appreciate other and respect their ways of thinking as summed up their culture. It weakens barrier between two languages and communicates message, spreads culture and increases understanding among neighbors near and far. Therefore, there is significant role of culture in translation.

The great contribution of translation is to transport the knowledge of varied world literature. Translation insights the love for cultural contact, sense of beauty, brotherhood, peace and harmony as Abbe Prevost was influenced from English culture and custom when he read the translation of Richard’s Pamela. The man who divorced himself in translation for distributing the knowledge of exceptional kind or marginalized race or culture always stands on the cross road of the history as a multi-cultural mediator (Lefevere 8).

The translation of anything means to create new thoughts from a foreign source culture into target culture. The act of translation is a consciousness of diversity in equality. Translation helps for communication and work as an instrument of developing a world culture. Gentzler says:

"[…] as the world shrinks together like an ageing orange and all peoples in all    culture are more closed together it may be that the crucial sentence for our remaining years on the earth may be very simply “TRANSLATE OR   DIE” (qtd.in Bhattarai 13)

Thus, the translation has made the world very narrow and congested that non-literature and culture are their own as it used to be in primitive age. It has changed the private ethnic based culture and literature into public and people can no more exist if he/she unable to get the steam of translation.

0.     Theoretical frame work

Newmark has defined translation as a process of collaboration between translators, revisers, terminologists, often writer and clients towards a general agreement. He considers it as a science which entails the knowledge and verification of the facts and language; a skill which calls for appropriate language and acceptable usage; an art that distinguishes good from undistinguished writng and a matter of taste. It is an instrument to transmit culture.(6-7)

Roger Bacon writes it is impossible to preserve the distinctive features of one language into another language since even idiomatic expressions in the same language tend to differ among its speakers.(49)

Clifford E Lander views that that translation does not have problems in vocabulary only, it does have problems in cultural artifacts, as they are not found in target culture. The greater the cultural distance between source culture and target culture, the more the translator needs to feel the gaps (93)

Bijay kumar Das writes language is culture oriented and therefore, there are problems in translating certain culture-based words into another language with a different culture. Equivalence of words in two or more language is hard to come by. Socio- cultural matrix plays a vital role in checking the nuances of the words in both language.(40)

0.1.The Procedures of Translation

Newmark has talked several procedures of translation.

      i.         Transference: It is the process of transferring a SL word to TL text as a translation procedure. In this process the SL cultural word which is peculiar in SL culture is taken into TL text. Geographical and topographical words are generally transferred.

    ii.         Naturalization: In this process the word of SL text to normal pronunciation and to the normal morphology of the TL.

   iii.         Cultural equivalent: A translation process in which SL cultural words are translated by TL cultural words.

   iv.         Functional equivalent: It is a process of transaltion where cultural words of SL text is neutralize or generalize. It is a deculturalising a cultural word.

     v.         Descriptive equivalent: It is a process of translation in which a translator describes the word of adminidtration to get proper equivalent words.

   vi.         Synonymy: it is a form of translation that goes near of TL equivalent in SL word. It is generally done when there is no proper equivalent word of SL in TL.

 vii.         Through translation: The literal translation of  common collocation, the name of international organization.

viii.         Shifts or transposition: A translation process involving the changes in grammar from SL to TL. If grammatical structure of SL text doesn’t exist in TL text, it is done.

   ix.         Modulation: A transaltion in which a variation through a change in viewpoint is called modulation.

     x.         Recognized translation: It refers to generally accepted translation of an

   xi.          institutional terms

 xii.         Reduction and expansion: In this process of translation the words of SL text is either reduced or explain in detail.(82-90)

Clfford E. Landers has explained the three basic tools to cope with the challenges of translation. These tools are helpful to translate the cultural words. A translator can use these terms to translate the cultural terms. He postulates footnote, interpolation, and omission. Footnote can be used to explain the terms that a translator does not find proper equivalent terms. Target readers can get the meaning of the words as it explains the terms of source text in translated text. Interpolation refers to addition of parenthetical word. However, a translator should be conscious enough to use it as it needn’t be longer. Finally, he talks about omission. It means deletion of the words. It means an unconditional surrender of the translator. A translator can omit some words if such words do not create a drastic differences of meaning of the source text in translated text. (93-95)

0.2.Culture: definition

Newmark defines culture as the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses peculiar language as its means of expression (94). Newmark has defined culture into two different aspects; the first aspect is the living process. It refers the way people live. The different practices one does to make life function are connected to culture. In the same line, the individual expression done in the society that manifest the entire community is also termed as culture. Newmark’s definition goes to the two line of the meaning: the projection of individual and its impacts in the society, the general view points.

Juliane House defines culture as the anthropological sense of a group’s dominant and learned sets of habits, as the totality of its non-biological inheritance, involves presuppositions, preferences and values- all of which are of course, neither easily accessible nor verifiable(93)

He defines cultural is an abstract term as it denotes the presuppositions, preferences and values. The presuppositions of the person may differ in the same societal and geophysical ground. Such variation may create the problems, as there will not be proper equivalent terms.

Ward H. Goodenough opines culture is not a material phenomenon, it does not consist of things, people behavior or emotions. It is rather an organization of these things. It is the forms of things that people have in mind, their model of perceiving, relating, and otherwise interpreting them (36).

In translation process, House opines that it is necessary to link linguistic diversity with external differences of historical, social, cultural background rather than one-sidedly insisting on the overriding importance of a link between cognitive and linguistic differences. He further says that cultural translation should adopt the functional model of translation. He views the functional equivalence must he there in translation of the cultural terms. By functional equivalence, he refers an evaluation model for original and translation. It helps to examine the interplay of different contextual factors or dimensions reflected in text.(97)

Functional equivalence is divided into two form of translation. He looks it as overt translation and covert translation. Overt translation looks translation cultural word as universal as the words of source text have geographical or social variety or any historical distinct meaning. A translator should produce translation, which allows culturally different person gain an impression and cultural impact of the original text. Therefore, a translator needs to practice cultural transfer (98-99).

Covert translation refers to a process in which translator recreates an equivalent speech events and reproduce or represent in translation text the function the original text has in its linguistic-cultural framework. It often results in a very real cultural distance from the original text, since the original is transmitted in varying degree(100).  He opines that cultural filter is used to achieve the originality of text in convert translation. The culture filter helps the translator to make systematic allowances for culture specificity accommodating for differences in socio-cultural norms and differences in conventions of text production and communicative process

0.3.Process of translation of cultural terms

Peter Newmark has talked about five different categories of cultural terms. He has categorized the cultural terms in five different terms. He views there will be translation problems unless there is cultural overlap between the source and target language. He postulates different methods for cultural translation. He opines translator can use transference, cultural equivalent, neutralization, literal translation, naturalization, deletion, paraphrase, notes, and classifier for translation of cultural terms.

Transference means transferring a SL word to a TL text.  In this process of translation, a translator uses the same word of the SL text in TL text. Geographical and topographical words are transferred. The semi cultural words have problems with translation, as they are abstract mental words associated with certain period, country, or individual. The translator has to try his best to make the reader know about it: s/he can explain it.

Cultural equivalent is appropriate procedure of translation, where a SL cultural word is translated by a TL cultural word. Cultural equivalent words have greater pragmatic impact than cultural neutral terms. As cultural words are limited in equivalent, it is better to use functional equivalence in translation process. The functional equivalence seeks the middle way to get the equivalence. It deals with function ability of the word. The functional equivalent all the time cannot address all cultural words. We need to describe it sometimes; He has talked about disruptive equivalence to solve the problems that cannot be addressed by functional equivalence,

Literal translation is another process of translation in which translation has justification to SL and TL text. Newmark has talked it as a basic procedure of translation, He views it is quite difficult to go above the word level in literal translation. He emphasizes the literal translation is only better with the word level. If one wants to move ahead of it, one should try to correspond the Sl and TL meaning. The pragmatic effect of equivalent must be there in translation process (70). 

He has explained reduction and expansion techniques in translation process. By reduction refers the deletion of the SL context in TL context. The translators omit the terms and other items, which they do not find proper equivalent or the part of the texts which do not have any significance effect in translated text. Similarly, expansion refers to the more explanation of the SL text in TL text.      ` (94-103)

Clifford E Lander postulates three basic tools to cope with the challenges. They are: footnote, interpolation, and omission. Footnote is a typical tool to explain the items that give detail information about the source text in case a translator does not find the proper equivalence of source text. The footnote helps the reader to get explanation of the terms of source text that they are not familiar. It refers to the explanation or providing additional information of SL text in TL text. Footnotes are desired to convey the maximum possible amount of information of SL into TL. It upholds scholarly standard of objectivity and comprehensiveness of SL text into TL text (93).  A TL reader can get proper information of the SL text. it helps to minimize the gap between SL and TL. It does not only keep the flow of the readers but also helps them know the terms properly. It can ensure the original flavor of SL text in TL text. The problems of translatability of cultural terms can be minimized with the help of footnotes. A translator can use it to eradicate, if not possible, minimize the problemsm of cultural word translation.

He further talks about another process, interpolation. He opines it is nothing more than adding a parenthetical word or phrase. It refers to minor modification of the text. It is done considering audience outside their language boundaries, to be as intelligible. He further views; it should be very short, never more than a few words. He opines that it helps the translator to use SL terms as it explains the text. It enhances the meaning conveyed more concise and denotative than its translation. It refers to adaptation of SL term with explanation (94-95).

Finally he talks about omission, same as deletion of Newmark, in translation process. He points out it; it does not refer to cutting out the woe that presents difficulties. It is equivalent of unconditional surrender. He says omission technique can be used in translation if deleted words do not create drastic differences of meaning of SL text in TL text.

Juliane House opines that translation of cultural terms should link between linguistic diversity with external differences of historical, social, and cultural background. It should adopt functional model. There must be functional equivalence and cultural filters. In functional equivalence, he has talked about two different things. They are overt and covert translation. Overt translation looks the cultural word translation as universal one. The geographical and social variety has distinct in meaning. The readers should get the impression of original text in translated text. Covert translation refers the recreation of an equivalent term that reproduces, or represents the translated text as original text. He talks about cultural filters as second tools to translate cultural terms to accommodate the differences in socio-cultural norms and differences  in conventions of text production (97-100)

1.     Analysis

The researcher has taken SL text smaple in romainized forms. We canot find all Neapli alphabet with their English equivalents. So, the researcher has used some Romanized alphabets, for vowels as: a  /ə/, aa  /α/, i  /i/, I /I/ e  /e/, ai / əi/, o /o/ou / əu/.  The researcher has used for consonant are: k /k/,  g /g/, ng /η /,ch / tz/, j /dz,/ t /t/, d/d/, Th/ ӫ/, D / ð/, n/n/, p /p/, ph/f/, b/b/, bh/v/, m /m/, y/j/, r/r/, l/l/, w/w/, s/s/, h/h/,.

As we know, there are not all Nepali alphabets in English alphabet. Therefore, the researcher has used some signs used in  Ekta Concise Nepali-English Dictionary. Kha , the second consoant of the Devanagari alphabet(162). Gh, the fouth consoant of the Devanagari alphabet(216). Chh, the seventh consonant of Devanagari alphabet(265). Jh, the ninth consonant of Devanagari syllabary- the sound /jh/ pronounced /ӡ/ as in rough. ‘th’ the twelveth consonant of the devanagari syllabary (324). ‘dh’ the fourteenth letter of the Devanagari syllabary (345). ‘T’ the sixteenth consonant of the Devanagari syllabary pronounced as /t/ (352). ‘Dh’ the nineteenth consonant of the Devaangari syllabary(410). ‘sh’ is used for thirtieth consoant of Devanagari syllabary.

3.1. In Ecological cultural words:
The words that depict ecological cultural terms fall under this category. The ecological cultural words presents the geographical other ecological terms.

i.               Akas dhumma thiyo au sadhai pahadka takuratirabat bagne chiso chiso vayu banda thiyo( Chettri Basain1)

The sky was overcast and the cold breeze did not blow from peaks, so the night was still(Chettri, Mountain 1)

ii.             Parvtiya vayu ra rasilo swadeshi bhojanko chhap tyasko angaangama chharieko chha, tar sukilo ratalai kalo badalale ghere grasta pare jastai, tysko sundar chehara sadhai chintako badalale malin hunchha(Chettri Basain 2)

His frame attests to the mountain air and the nutritious food of his homeland, but his handsome face is always darkened by clouds of worry, like black clouds of sullying a clear night(Chettri, Mountain 2).

iii.            Tyo mul hiunda lagda ni suken ra tyaka gaunlehru mili mul phuteko tyas thaunma chuchche dungo tersaidie. Tyasaile gaule ahru tyasalai chhahare dharo bhanchhan(Chettri Basain 6)

The spring never dried up after that, even when winter came, and the villagers got together and laid down a pointed rock.. they called it the “ waterfall spring”( Chettri, Mountain 11)

iv.            Mathi uttisagahribat Mote Karki godatinek jakkharjakkhar khasi bistarai ghisyaudai ukalo lagiraheko thiyo(Chettri Basain 15)

Up by the copse of alder tree, Mote Karki was dragging three stout khasi goats up the slope(Chettri, Mountain 28)

The word stout is generally used with human quality. It would have been better if it has been used robust. The word khasi has typical meaning. It cannot be replaced by other terms. So translator has used the same term of original text.

v.              Mathi dherai tadha Patle gahrika majhama bisal dhungaharu setaseta dekhinchhan. Dubai tir gahiro au majham utheko nikai lamo nangi chha. Tyasai dada mathi baschh sara gaunko bishal bajar(Chettri Basain 17)

A lot higher up and farther away, huge white boulders could be seen in the middle of a sparse stretch of forest. There was a long stretch of pasture, higher in the middle and dropping away at both sides. It was this hilltop that all the villagers had their grand bazaar(Chettri, Mountain 33)

The most of the translated words have proper equivalence. However, the word nagi which has been translated as pasture refers to the land for grazing cattle; cannot give the sense of it. In fact, it means a dry meadow.  

vi.            Parvatko banya kunama bhaeka sanatina dhiskaharubat babiyo ra bilauneka hangahru nuher manau tal phedivasiharule swagat gariraheka chhan(Chettri Basain 28)

The tall grasses and the boughs if tge chilaune trees that grow in some low hills to the left of the mountains bow down as if to welcome those dwell below(Chettri, Mountain 51)

The word babiyo has been translated as tall grasses. It has no equivalence in translation of source text word. Similarly, the word bilaune has been translation as chilaune. It would have been better if the translator has used same word bilaune.

vii.          Charaitir manlai birakt parne khurkhure dandaharu Hriyo kanhi thiena(Chettri Basain 40)

All around her there were bare rugged mountains that made her feel alone and cut off, and there was no greenness anywhere(Chettri, Mountain 74)

The words manali birakta parne has been translated as made her feel alone and cut off. It could be translated as made her feel vexed.

viii.         Dudhilo khadaina ki kaso?( Chettri Basain 41)

Do the animals eat dudhilo?( Chettri, Mountain 76)

The line of the original text is in negative connotation. But, the translator has used the sentence in positive connotation. It should be translated as do the animals not eat dudhilo?              

ix.            Bage dandabat dota bata phateka thie. Euta tallo bato pariko gaun janthyo,ani mathillo bato banatir lagthyo(Chettri Basain 48)

The path forked at Bagedanda. The lower fork went to next village; the higher led to the forest(Chettri, Mountain 87).

x.              Ragebhirko namale kahalaieko dhungaidhungako euta paharo jasako uchai hajarau phit hola- mathibat tal herda ringata algchha(Chettri Basain 48).

Range cliff was the name given to a rocky precipice that must be thousands of feet high- looking down from its summit made you giddy(Chettri, Mountain 88)

 

The researcher has taken ten sample sentences to study the ecological cultural words. The translators have used functional equivalence, neutralization, and literal translation and adaptation techniques in translation process. The words that are translated with neutralization technique are: swadeshi bhojan, chuchche dhungo, paaTle ghaari, etc. The word swadeshi bhojan has been translated as ‘nutritious food’. In fact, it refers to local food and rich with nutrition. The translator neutralizes the word with nutritious food. Similarly, the word ‘pointed rock’ for chuchche dhungo is neutralization.  In a tap people put a little bit big stone, like rock, so the translator has used the neutralization technique in translation. In the same line, paaTle ghaari  has been translated as’ sparse stretch of fores’t. The word Chhahare chhaango has been translated as ‘waterfall spring’. The word baabiyo has been translated with neutralization technique as it has been translated as ‘tall grass’

The translator has used adaptation technique in the translating process. As he find some typical ecological words which are not easily translated, he has used the same words of SL text in TL text. The words that are translated with adaptation technique  are: DuDhilo,range, chilaaune. He has used the same words, as it is not easy to get proper equivalence of the following terms. He has used endnote to explain such words so TL readers can get the real meaning of the SL text. in translation process of ecological word, he ha salso used literal translation technique. The sentence, ChaaraiTir manlaaI birakt paarne khurkhure daandaaharu hariyo kaanhi Thiena, has been translated as ‘all around her there were bare rugged mountains that made her feel alone and cut off, and there was no greenness anywhere’ is a literal translation.

3..2 Material Cultural terms:

        i.              Mailo thauntahunma phateko sirakle khutta dekhi taukai samma aphulai gutumutu parera parabat herda masta nindrama apreko bhan bhaeni Dhane Basnetlai nindra pareko thiena((Chettri Basain 1)

From a distance, Dhane Basnet looked as if he were asleep, bundled up from to his head in a dirty quilt that was turn in places (Chettri, Mountain 1)

           ii.         Thekima ek dui muthi Turkaiudai garda dui-char din biraer nikleko chokhanale ana suki paisa hoihalchh(Chettri Basain 1)

If we put a little aside for a few days we’ll have ghee and we will surely have few annas(Chettri, Mountain 2)

The word theki, a wooden vessel to keep curd and skimmed milk has been omitted in translation.

       iii.             Char char kaudiko nimti jivanako akhiri swasko baji lagaun chahanchha tar usako arthik jivanma pariwartan  aeko chaina Makkieka khabahru makkidai nai gairaheka chhan(Chettri Basain 2)

For every four cowries, he is willing to lay down a bet on the last breath of his life. But, his hardships do not change. The rotting posts of his house just go on rotting.( Chettri, Mountain 3-4)

     iv.              Dhane kholma ko khulla tandamathi paralama palter gham tapiraheko thiyo(Chettri Basain 4).

He lay sunning himself on some straw on the open roof of his lean-to.( Chettri, Mountain 8-9)

     v.                Sudaul nakama sano phuli ra bulaki, kanama mundri, galama chhatisamma jhundieko pwanloko mileko mala, chhineko kammaramathi sariko gultho uthaera badheko patuka, kapal dhakera pacchiltira bat bereko majetro, goro barnako chehara, yowan phakreko tyo sara sharir au tyasama raheka pratyek bastule yuwakako hridaya akarshit gariraheko thiyo(Chettri Basain 7).

The blossoming young body and everything that was on it, attracted his heart like: the little ring on her nostril and stud in her shapely nose, the rings on her ears, the coral necklace that hung down from her neck to breast, the waistband that held a fold of her sari up above her slender waist, the cloth she wore over the back of her head  to cover her hair, her fair face(Chettri, Mountain 12)

The word bulaki has been translated as little ring on nostril. In fact, it refers to nose ringlet. Similarly, pwanlo has been translated as coral. The word coral does not give the sensual meaning of the original word. The translator has used several source words in translated text. It would have been better if he has used the same word with footnote.

          vi.         Atha ana hatako luga bahra ana ghati chhunai didaina(Chettri Basain 17)

Clothes that usually cost eight annas a foot couldn’t even be touched for less than twelve annas(Chettri, Mountain 33-34)

The word foot has been used to translate hat. The item of measurement differs here. A foot may not be equivalent to original word hat. However, it makes the target readers to understand it, though it does not give the exact meaning of the source text.

      vii.            Dhane bhainsi ra gorulai ghans hali katerakai parkhalmathi basera bansako sotema tamakhu taniraheko thiyo(Chettri Basain 23)

Dhane had fed his buffalo and oxen and he was sitting on the wall of the stall, smoking tobacco from a bamboo pipe(Chettri, Mountain 41).

      viii.         Osieko dhodale  rumallieko dhunwa khapna nasaki chheuma baseko usako chhora roekole usako dhyan bhanga bho(Chettri Basain 25)

His son sat there, too, but when the smoke billowed up from the fresh maize stalks on the fire and got into his eyes he began to cry. The sound interrupted Dhane’s train of thought(Chettri, Mountain 47)

          ix.         Yahi taharako ek chheuma siru phadera praya adha adha pharlangko pharak gari

Banaeka charwata kateraharu nistabdha khada chhan (Chettri Basain .29)

                 At the edge of the meadow, the grass has been cut back and four huts have been built; they stand in silence(Chettri, Mountain 51).

                 The word grass has been used to indicate the source word siru. In fact, the grass does not identify types or typicality, whereas, siru refers to typical grass. It needs to be translated as cogon-grass. Similarly the word of measurement pharlang has been omitted in the translation.

            x.         Katerakai xeuma chitrako chhahari r chitraikai duitir bar, ekapatti bariko kanlako ada ra arkapatti khulla baheko lamo gotha chha.( Chettri Basain 29)

Next to hut there is long cow pen. Its sides and roof are both made of bamboo matting. This hut is closed off at one end by the field boundary and open at the other(Chettri, Mountain 52).

          xi.         Euta sano gharko mul dailo ugriyoani bistari banda bhayo euta  seto chhadma anganama ayo ani sarasar mulbatotir sululu bangejhai dekhiyo(Chettri Basain 48)

Then the main door of a small house opened and slowly closed. A white figure came out into the yard and could be seen making its way quickly towards the main path(Chettri, Mountain 87)

        xii.         Kukhurako dakama mul dailo bat tin prani bahir niske. Agiagi  Dhane, pthyunma khastoko euta kumlo, jasamathi godaduek radi bahir bereka chhan. Hatama arko euta sano kuturo jhundyaeko chha(Chettri Basain 60)

With cock first crow, three people came out of the main door. Dhane is in front, with some homespun cloth tied in a bundle of his back and some rags bound around it(Chettri, Mountain 106)

 

 The researcher has taken twelve sample sentences for the study of the material cultural terms. In translating process of material cultural terms the translator  has used different techniques like, neutralization and functional equivalence, deletion, etc.

The deletion technique used in  the SL word are: theki,kholmaa,pharlaang,  The word theki is a typical object used to get buttermilk in Nepali society. it is a vessel in which people put yogurt and make ghee or butter and butter milk. It is also the palce to keep th milk to make curd or yogurt. The omission of the word has laps the meaning, however the translator has taken care in omission as it does not has drastic differences in the meaning conveyed by SL in TL. The world kholmaa has also been omitted in Tl text. it denotes the typical place of the house. The omission of the word can have problems in the meaning conveyed by SL text. The word pahrlaang refers to measurement. It has been omitted in TL text. It has impact in the meaning of the text.

The translator has used neutralize the words with functional equivalence in translation of material culture. The words that are neutralize are: khaabaa,majeTro,haaT,siru etc.

The word khaabaa has been translated as post. In fact, the word khaabaa of the house has been translated as post of the house. It makes the TL readers to get the real meaning of the text. The word majeTro has typical meaning in  SL culture. The translator has translated it as  cloth she wore over the back of her head  to cover her hair, it is a descriptive equivalence  for neutralization. Similarly, haaT has been translated as foot. Though foot does not give exact sense of measurement of haaT, it makes TL readers to know about measurement. In the same line, the translator has translated siru as the grass, The translator has used neutralization technique to translate some material words. We  can find one translation with improper equivalence. The word Osieko dhodale  has been translated as ‘fresh maize stalks.’

The translator has to failed to understand the  word of SL text.  the word Osieko does not mean  fresh. Such improper translation creates greater laps in the meaning of SL in TL.

3..3 social cultural terms

i.               Baidar buda thie kattar santani chhuwachhutako khubai khyal rakhtathe. Aphno bhase bahundekhi bahek kasaiel pakaeko nakhane(Chettri Basain.3)

The baidar was an old man, a firm traditionalist who paid great attention to matters of purity and touchability. He ate nothing that had not been prepared by his own Bahun cook(Chettri, Mountain 4)

The word chhuwachhut has been translated as touchability. In fact, it means untouchability. The writer might have misunderstood the term on cultural set up.

ii.             U dharako chheuma basi bela, pnchapatro adi chokho batti garne sardamaharu majhna thali(Chettri Basain 7).

She lowered her eyes sat down to one side of the spring and began to wash out the various implements her family used in religious rituals.( Chettri, Mountain 13)

The translator has used the general terms as religious implements to denote the utensils. The translator has used deletion technique and substitutes the particular words with general terms. It would have been better if he has used the terms of original words.

iii.            Nadalai bhandakunda majhna au kutna pidhna Nsagauchhe. Nabha bnaune khwaune kam pray jhumako nai hunchh.Bhansa tayar parisakepachhi jhumale bhaujule basethauma gai adaima basera Bhani,” bhauju bhansa tayar bhayo, aj timele deuna hai.”( Chettri Basain 9)

She helps her husband’s sister to wash the pots and to mill and pound the grain. Otherwise, all the cooking and serving of food is Jhuma’s responsibility. When she had finished preparing the food Jhuma went and sat beside Maina, “ Bhauju, the food is ready. Would you serve the meal today?”( Chettri, Mountain 19)

The translator has used  husband’s sister for the term Nnada. But, he has used the same term of original text Bahuju in translation. He can have used sister-in- low for the term.

iv.            Jhuma sangini bhanchhe. Usko swar masino tar mitho chha. Jato pidhda sangini bahnnu gramin narihruko purano ritaho(Chettri Basain 11).

Jhuma sings a sangini and her voice is thin but sweet. It is an old custom for village women to sing a sangani as they grind grain and Maina is very fond of it.( Chettri, Mountain 20-21)

The most of the words are translated with proper equivalent terms. However, the word jato has been omitted.

v.              Tijle Nepali samajma nariharubat bharkhar bida liyo ra ahile dansaiko agamanko china swarup sorah sradah chhoeko chha(Chettri Basain 12).

Teej had just taken its leave of the women of Nepali society, and now the Sorah shraddha arrived, a sign that Dashain was near(Chettri, Mountain 22).

vi.            Mero sindur pote chhain dekhnu hunna?( Chettri Basain 19)

“There is no sindur in my hair. And I’m not wearing a bead necklaceh, can’t you see?”( Chettri, Mountain 36)

vii.          Rote ping khelna dashaima aunuhunnara? Tapainka gaunka sabai aunchhan. (Chettri Basain 20)

Won’t you come to ride swing at Dasain?everyone from your village does(Chettri, Mountain 37)

The word rote ping is a typical term. The word swing does not clarify typicality of the word. The translator must have tried his best to represent the typical term. As he fails to represent the typical word, it has created problems in message conveyed. 

viii.         “ Tyasota ropain ko majhama jani jani arkako biyadnma bhainsi chhodidineko pani ta danda holani. Sandhe ta hoina hola ni bhainsi ta ?”( Chettri Basain 37)

If that’s so, a penalty should be paid by a person who knowingly let a buffalo loose on someone else’s seedbed in the middle of planting. It’s not a bull,this buffalo, is it?( Chettri, Mountain 66)

ix.            Kumara kanyalai kumaristhan ma atal parirkhne kanyabhavalai gumaunu parda aj usakai akhale pani uslai heyako dristikodale herirakheko thiyo,( Chettri Basain 42)

Today she had been forced to give up the virginity that keeps young girls secure in their status, and now even it regarded her with contempt.( Chettri, Mountain 77)

 

The researcher has taken nine sentences as sample for the study of social cultural terms. The researcher finds different techniques have been used to translate the socio-cultural terms of SL text into TL text. The techniques used in translation are: functional equivalence, deletion, substitution, adaptation, neutralization.

The translator has used deletion and substitute techniques to translate the utensils used in religious rituals. The words belaa, pnchapaaTro aadi chokho baTTii garne are deleted and they are substituted as various implements her family used in religious rituals. It denotes that the translator has paid attention in deletion technique. Though the words ate deleted the reader can understand the meaning of the text. The words that are translated with adaptation are:sangani, sinDur, sorah sraDha TIj. He has used the same as the TL text. He has used endnote  to explain. The word nanDa, roteping are translated with neutralization technique. NanDa has been translated as husband’s wife and roteping has been translated as swing. NanDa is typical word and the translator has used husband’s wife makes the reader know the exact meaning of the SL text. Most of the words are translated with proper equivalence. However, we can find one improper translation. The word chhuwaachhuTako has been translated as purity and touchability. It cannot give the real meaning of the SL Text.

3.5.4. organizational Cultural words:

        i.              La ke bhane tamasukama budhi aulako chhap lagaide(Chettri Basain 3).

Make a mark with thumb on the agreement(Chettri, Mountain 4).

The word tamasuk has a typical meaning in Nepali society. It has peculiar meaning in organizational practice. The word agreement cannot represent the peculiar meaning of the source word. It needs to be translated as make a mark with thump in bond paper.

       ii.              Armal gari Dhanelai tin mohor jaribana tokiyo(Chettri Basain 5)

It was resolved that Dhane would pay a fine of three mohors(Chettri, Mountain 10)

The organizational word armal is similar to fine. Nevertheless, it does not mean exact fine rather it is a type of compensation. Hence, the word fine cannot signify the source word. The target readers may not get the exact meaning of the source word. It would have been better if the translator has translated it, as Dhane would pay a compensation of three mohors.

   iii.                Rikute bhae pachhi ke khojnu chha gajabai bhaigoni,( Chettri Basain 9)

That’s right. Once you’ve joined army. What else do you need to look for?( Chettri, Mountain 18)

The word rikute has a typical meaning in Nepali society. it is true that it means army. However, it refers to the army of foreign country, especially Indian army. The translator could have translated it as recruit.

   iv.                Thuli hatako chheuma bhatmasko pasal phijaera basi.( Chettri Basain 17)

Thuli sat down on the side of the path and spread out her stall of soybeans(33).

The word hatako chheuma has been translated as on the side of the path, does not give the real sense of source text word. It would have more reliable if it has been translated as at the side or outskirt of bazzar.

     v.                Usako khet pani kutama garnu paro(Chettri Basain 28}

I must rent his fields from him(Chettri, Mountain 50)

The word kut has archetypal meaning in Nepali culture. The translator has failed to understand the meaning of the word. In translation, the translator has used rent for kut. It is not the proper equivalence of the word. It refers to taking land on lease. It is better to translate it as,, I must lease his land.

   vi.                Adhai mahinako bhaka gari adhai mahinama tokieko rupaiya byajasahit bujhauna nasake sahule Dhaneko gharbari bastuko mol garera aphna rupaiya saknechha bhanne byahorako naya tamasuk garera Dhaneko sahi linako paschat panchayat samapta bhayo(Chettri Basain 37)

So he was given two and half months to pay, and new agreement was drown up. This stated that if Dhane didn’t pay the whole sum with interest within two and half months, the Sahu could have Dhane’s house and lifestock valued and raise the money from their sale(Chettri, Mountain 68).

 vii.                Khayalako mol garne ho bhane bholi aij. Bholi sabailai bhela garchhu ani bholi nai lekhapadhi gari tirera ubreko paisa paunchhas. Addabat nam darta garna ta tan nabhae pani ma garihalchhu ni(Chettri Basain 58)

If you want to sell your property, come tomorrow. I’ll call them all here. Then tomorrow we’ll make up the accounts, and you’ll get whatever’s outstanding. If you can’t come, I’ll register the transaction in your name at the office(Chettri, Mountain 104)

The mol word has been translated as sell. In fact, Dhane was no there to sell his property. Dhane want to evaluate his property whether it could be enough to pay the dept and would he get any amount left after paying. Addabat nam darta garna ta tan nabhae pani ma garihalchhu ni  has been translated as If you can’t come, I’ll register the transaction in your name at the office. The sentence of the source text has been mistranslated. In fact, Nande meant to say he would transfer the transaction of Dhane into his although Dahne is absent in office. The sentence ‘ I will register the transaction in your name is completely different than the intended meaning of the source text.

 

The researcher has taken seven sample sentences for study. The researcher has found different techniques are used to translate the organizational words. The techniques used in translation are neutralization and functional equivalence. The words, Tmaasuk, armal, rikute,are neutralize in translation. The word Tamaasuk has been translated as agreement. In fact, agreement  does not have exactly the same as Tamaasuk. However, it is also a type of agreement. The translator has neutralize it with functional translation. In the same line, the word, armal has been translated as fine. But, armal is not a fine rather it is a compensation that one has to pay. The translator neutralize it with functional equivalence as it is translated as fine. The word fine can give similar meaning of the word armal. Similarly, rikute has been translated as army. The word rikute in Nepalese society, is termed for those who join Indian army. The word army cannot give the exact cultural sense of SL text. However, the word army is general terms. It can give similar sense of meaning. It is also a technique of neutralization.

We can also find problems in equivalence. Some words of SL text are translated with improper equivalence. The words like haatkaa chheumaa, kut, mol, Addabaat naam darta garna ta Tan nabhae pani ma garihalchhu ni do not have proper equivalence in translation. Haaatakaa chheumaa has been translated as one side of the path. It does not give the exact sense of the SL text. kuT has been translated as rent. In fact kuT is typical practice of farming system in Nepali society. It means taking land on lease. Similarly, mol has been translated as sell. It means evaluate the land. Likewise, the sentence Addabaat naam darta garna ta Tan nabhae pani ma garihalchhu ni has been translated as I’ll register the transaction in your name at the office. The SL sentence means Nande will register Dhane’s property in his name though Dhane is not available in office. The translator fails to understand the meaning ot the SL text. the translation with Improper equivalence makes the translation problematic. The TL readers cannot get the exact meaning of the text.

3.5.5 gesture and habits

      i.                Usale ekpalta hai garyo(Chettri Basain 2)

He yawned(Chettri, Mountain 2)

The word of frequency has been omitted in translation. The word ekpalt has been omitted.

    ii.                Jhan halsaro bhaepachhi ta charai khutta chalaera burukka uphri dhaneali chheu parna din chhadyo(Chettri Basain.4)

At milking time, the buffalo kicked out, brandished its horns, and jumped around…

( Chettri, Mountain 8)

The word halsaro has been omitted in translation. It has a typical meaning in the cultural practice. It refers the situation where an animal is almost in the middle time or end process of milking. The translator has omitted such term.

   iii.                U  nani ko chheuma gaera chukchuk gardai phulyauna thali(Chettri Basain 14)

… and laid down beside child to soothe him back to sleep(Chettri, Mountain 26)

The onomatopoeic word chukchuk has been omitted. It is a habit of parents to soothe the babies in sleeping time.

   iv.                Aj tyo muntinchhe hola her kapeki(Chettri Basain 21)

She is going to fall on her head, see how she’s trembling?( Chettri, Mountain 38)

The word fall on her head for muntinchhe is literal translation. It can be translated as fall flat on head.

     v.                Karkiko namratale Jumlai aphno rukhai mathi aphai laj lagyo(Chettri Basain 23).

Karki’s humility made Jhuma ashamed of her harsh reaction(Chettri, Mountain 41)

   vi.                Karki uthyo ra ang tandai bhanyo,” lu ma hide, dhakalnisit bhetera ma pheri aula(Chettri Basain 28)

Karki got up and stretches himself. “ Right, I’m off. I’ll come again after I have spoken with her.”( Chettri, Mountain 51)

 vii.                Dhane koterama jhokriera basiraheko thiyo (Chettri Basain 35)

Dhane sat inside his hut, nursing his grief.( Chettri, Mountain 63)

Dhane sat looking dejected in his hut.

viii.                Kin Jhuma khattopiroma balgarchhe, usako hidaima agiko jhai kin furti chain(Chettri Basain 39)

Why Jhuma had lost her taste for spicy food, why her gait was less sprightly than before(Chettri, Mountain 71)

The translator has failed to translate the source word. Kin Jhuma khattopiroma balgarchhe has been translated as why Jhuma had lost her taste for spicy food. ./The translated sentence is unable to grab the meaning of the source text. The source text presents the interest of Jhuma towards sour and spicy food. But, translation presents the opposite meaning of the text as it tells her lost of taste to spicy food.

   ix.                Jhuma hatkelale mukh chopper run thali(Chettri Basain 55)

Jhuma covered her face with her hand and wept(Chettri, Mountain 97)

     x.                Jhumale munto uthaera karkitir heri. Karkika ankhama motikadana chhachalkiraheka thie(Chettri Basain 55)

Then Jhuma looked up once again. She saw the tears streaming from his eyes(Chettri, Mountain100).

The researcher has taken ten-sample sentences to study gestures and habits. The researcher has found different techniques used in translation of gestures and habits. The techniques used are deletion and literal translation.

The words ekpalta, halsaaro, chukchuk are omitted in translation. Ekpalta is the word of frequency. In the sentence He yawned, the word frequency omitted. In SL text, there is word ekpalta. Though it doesnot have greater impact in the meaning, the translator could have translate is as he yawned once. The word halsaaro  has typical meaning. It refers the animal whose calf is dead recently. The omission of the word does not give the exact meaning of SL text. Onomatopoeic  word chukchuk has also omitted in the translation.

We also find literal translation in translating process of SL word.  The sentence Aaj Tyo muntinchhe holaa her kaapeki has been translated as She is going to fall on her head, see how she’s trembling? It is a literal translation of the sentence. Some  sentences are translated with improper equivalence. The sentence Kin Jhumaa khattopiromaa balgarchhe, usako hidaaimaa agiko jhai kin phurTi chain has been translated as Why Jhuma had lost her taste for spicy food, why her gait was less sprightly than before. It is improper translation of the word. The words khattopiromaa balgarchhe meanss she has more desire to have such food, but, the translator translated it as Jhuma had lost her taste for spicy. Such improper translation creates the problems in meaning of the TL text.

2.     Conclusion:

Translation is transformation of the thought process. One needs to translate the socio cultural behaviors too. It is one of the difficult task in translation. It is very difficult  to get proper equivalence terms in translation of the cultural words. Therefore the translators use different techniques Deletion, functional equivalence, adaptation are the techniques used by translators. Interpolation can function as an important tool of translation. The translators are not using different tools  rather than these tools. The uses of such tools helps the transformation of the meaning of SL into

TL.

References

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Chettri, Lil Bahadur. Basaain. Lalitpur :  Sajha  Publication  , 2074 B.S. Print.

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Goodenough,  Ward H. Cultural anthropology and linguistics Language in Cultrue and Society. Ed. by Dell Hymes, New York,Hamper and Row, pp. 36-9.

Hornby, A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English 6^th ed. New York:            Oxford UP, 2000. Print.

House, Juliane. Universality versus culture specificity in translation. Translation Studies: Perspectives in an Emerging Discipline. Ed. Alessandra Ricahrdi . Cambridge University

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