Few Terms used

 in Drama

a.   Hamartia

It is a term that derived from Greek word, hamartanein that means error in judgment.  Aristotle has coined this term in Poetics in describing tragic hero. It is called as a tragic flow, inherent defect or shortcoming in the hero of tragedy. It reverses a protagonist’s fortune from good to bad. It includes the character flaws like excessive ambition, greed or pride, which result in tragic consequences. Example

Othello’s fatal flaw is his jealousy. Fueled by Iago’s lies, Othello flies into a jealous rage and murders his wife. Having discovered that she is in truth innocent, he kills himself as well

The love that Othello has caused jealousy that has drive him to extremes.

Hamartia is important in drama as it shapes tragic plot. It contributes in the downfall of a protagonist to make a drama as a tragedy. It helps to flow catharsis to the audience. It helps to cast the moral lesson.

 

b. Peripeteia: It is a sudden change in a story, which results in a negative reversal of circumstance. It is also known as turning point in drama after which the plot moves steadily to its denouement. It is a term used by Aristotle in Poetics. He defines it as the shift of the tragic protagonist’s fortune from good to bad. It surprises the audience as it makes them know tp follow as  a result of a character’s previous action or mistakes.

Aristotle views it is single most important and powerful element of plot in a tragedy. It creates fear and pity in the audience upon witnessing the tragic twist of fate. It helps to twist the plot and changes the protagonist’s life forever.

 

c. Anagnorisis

It is a moment in a plot or story in a tragedy wherein the main character recognizes or identifies his true nature of situation and recognizes other character’s true-identity and nature. It helps to get resolution in the story.  It is a moment of insight in the story where protagonist shifts from ignorance to awareness. It is a realization of characters’ self., their actual relationship with another character. It is used as a turning point in the plot of story or play that leads to a resolution. Though it is used in tragedy, sometimes it can be used as a source of humor.

Aristotle has coined this term. He discussed its meaning as recognition in Poetics. He defines, “A change in literary work from ignorance to knowledge, creating love or hate between the individuals doomed by the poet for bad or good fortune”. He views it supports complex narrative and characterization.

 

 

d. Dramatic Irony

Dramatic irony involves a situation in a play or a narrative, in which the audience or reader shares with the author’s knowledge of present or future circumstances of a character that is ignorant. In that situation, the literary character unknowingly acts in a way we recognize to be grossly inappropriate to the actual circumstances, or expects the opposite of what we know that fate holds in store, or says something that anticipates the actual outcome, but not at all in the way that the character intends. It is a literary device which helps audience to understand the events, and individual in a work that surpasses the characters. It is a form of irony that is expressed through a work’s structure. Dramatic irony is also sometimes equated with tragic irony, situational irony, and structural irony.  

 

 

e. Blank Verse

It is an unrhymed iambic pentameter. It is preeminent dramatic and narrative verse in English and standard form of
Italian drama. Divisions in blank verse poems, used to set off a sustained passage, are called verse paragraph.

 

 

 

 

 

 

A Brief Reading of Class 11 New Course Information

A Brief Reading of Class 11 New Course Information

1.         Passage  15 marks

It contains three types of questions. There are  Five short questions, Five multiple choice questions, and five vocabulary questions. Strategies of reading or dealing with passage:

a.   Skimming.: Skimming is a strategic, selective reading method in which you focus on the main ideas of a text. it deals with as we can skip the text and a reader looks at introduction, topic sentence, concluding sentence some typical words. Skimming is extracting the essence of the author’s main messages rather than the finer points. There are three types of skimming: preview, overview, and review.

 

b.  Scanning is reading a text quickly in order to find specific information, e.g. figures or names. It can be contrasted with skimming, which is reading quickly to get a general idea of meaning.

c.   Intensive reading involves learners reading in detail with specific learning aims and tasks.. The learners read a short text and put events from it into chronological order. It gives attention on a particular language features.

d.  Extensive Reading allows the learner to develop an awareness of collocations (common word partnerships) and thousands of lexical phrases. Extensive Reading helps learners understand grammar

 

2, Short question answer ( five Questions that contains 2 marks each)

·     Hit the head: you must begin with exact answer of the questions. The first sentence should begin with the answer.

·      Give supporting detail from the text: The topic sentence of your answer should be supported with substantial detail of the text. it does not mean that we need to write unnecessary information of the text.

·     Conclude your answer: restate your topic sentenc e of your answer.

3. Long question answer( Two Questions that contains % marks each)

·     Form a thesis statement of the answer: begin your answer with general background to specific idea and narrow down the main standpoint of your answer.

·     Gather all essential information to support your answer: in a brief write the summary of the test. However,  your should not write whole summary/

·     Interpretation: you need to interpret the essential information to support your thesis statement. It means have validity claim or warrant of your thesis statement of the answer.

·     Conclusion: it means you need to restate the thesis statement.

4. Free writing (25 marks)

a.   The personal letter writing:

b.   Personal narrative

c.    Paragraph writing

d.   Essay writing

e.    Email writing

f.     Giving direction

g.   Dialogue writing

h.   Film review writing

i.     Book review writing

j.     Travelogue writing

5. GrammarL10 Marks)

a.     Parts of speech and dictionary use

b.     Adverbs and its position

c.     Tense::present, past, future and color future  

d.     Subject verb agreement

e.        Study of the verb: transitive, intransitive, linking, regular and irregular verb

f.       Uses of modal verb: should, may might must can’t, used to

g.     Relative clause: defining and non definfing

h.     Structure of wishes

i.       Sentence functions: structure of sentence and different component of sentence

j.       Voice

k.    Reported speech

l.       Articles

m.  Connectives

6. Vocabulary (5 marks)

The words we find in ways with the word in Language study section

 भंगेरी

एउटा सानो भंगेरो सिमलको गाछीमा गुण बनाएर बसेको थियो। उ खुसी थियो। उसलाई लाग्थ्यो कि संसार उसैको हो। उ स्वतन्त्र भएर उड्थ्यो। उसका चाहनाहरु सिमित थिए। उसको परिवार सुरु भएको थिएन। बिस्तारै उ बढ्न थाल्यो। उसका चाहनाहरु बढ्दै गए। उसलाई परिवारको चाहना भतो। प्रगतिसिल समाजमा वंश धान्ने चाहना राख्नु गलत थिएन। उसले एउटी भंगेरीलाई माया जालमा पार्यो र घरजम बसायो।
त्यो सानो सिमलको गुण उसको लागि प्रयाप्त भएन। उ बाध्य भयो र जंगलको ठुलो सालको गाछीमा बसाई सर्यो। उसलाई लागेको थियो ठुलो ठाऊको बसाई सहज हुन्छ। बिचरा चरि! उसलाई” के थाँहा जङ्गल राजको कथा। उसलाई त सिमलको रुख जस्तै कञ्चन लागेको थियो त्यो जङ्गल।
गुण बनाउदै गर्दा छिमेकीहरु राम्रै जस्तो लाग्या थियो उसलाई। कोहि कोहि त बेसारे पारामा सोध्थे उसलाई केहि सहयोग चाहिन्छ कि भनेर। उसले त्यो छद्म भेदि कुरा बुझ्न सकेन। बुझोस नि कसरी? उ त छद्म भेदि थिएन।उसलाई त संसार उ जस्तै निर्मल लाग्थ्यो।
बिस्तारै रङ्ग भेदि समाजको रङ्ग बुझ्न थाल्दै थियो। दैवको लिला, भंगेरोकि जहानले नयाँ जिवनको फुल खेलाउन थालि। बिस्तारै भंगेरिको बानि परिवर्तन हुन थाल्यो। भंगेराको मन नि फुरुङ्गै भयो। तर उसको खुशि निमेष भरको मात्रै हो भनेर बुझ्न सकेन। सकोस नि कसरी? परको टोड्कोमा घात लगाएर बसेको त्यो कालो नाग उसको नजरमा आउने कुरै भएन। उ त ढुक्दै थियो कति खेर भंगेरिले फुल पार्लि र खउला भनेर। नभन्दै जसै भंगेरिले फुल पारि त्यो नाग आई हाल्यो फुल खान। वास्तवमा त्यो नागको जिवन चर्यानै अर्काको फुल चोरेर खानुमा बितेको थियो। जसै नाग सालको गछिमा चड्न थाल्यो भंगेराले बुझ्यो कि उसको वंशको बिनास हुदै छ। उ रुखको वरिपरि उड्न थाल्यो। बिचराले गर्न सक्ने केबल त्यति न हो। उसले मध्दत नमागेको पनि हैन देखे र चिने जति सबैसँग हार गुहार गरेकै हो। तर कोहि मधदतको लागि आएनन्। सायद चारो टिप्न जंगलबाट गाउ तिर लाग्दा मान्छेको बानि सरेको हुन सक्छ भनर अड्कल काट्यो भंगेराले।
भंगेरा-भंगेरिले हार मानेनन्। उनिहरुलाई लाग्थयो एक माघले जाडो जादैन। शिशिरमा फुल झर्दैमा फुल फुलाउने गुणनै समाप्त हुदैन। उनिहरुले अर्को वषन्तको पर्खाईमा दिन ब्यतित गरे र बिगतको पस्चताप नगरि वर्तमानमा बाच्ने प्रयास गरे। हुन पानि जिवन धर्मीले जिवने कलानै त्यहि हो। तर निर्दयि संसार यो पटक नि त्यहि भयो। काले नाग न पर्यो नखाई किन छोड्थ्यो। बिचरा ति भंगेरा भ।गेरि बिबस भएर फर्के फरि उहि पुरानो ठाउ। त्यहि सिमलको गाछी जसलाई छोडेर उनिहरु हिडेका थिए। तर समय उहि थिएन। सिमलका धेरै भुवाहरु उडिसकेका थिए। त्यो सिमलको रुख बुढो भैसकेको थियो। पुरानो समाज फेरि सकेको थियो। रुखमा अरु चराहरुनि बस्न थालेका थिए। बदलिएको थिएन केबल त्यसका जरा।
भंगेरो पहिलेको जस्तो रुखमा हैकम जमाउन सक्ने ल्याकत त राख्देन थियो तर पनि त्यो रुखसंग उसको स्मृति पोतिएको हुदा केहि सहजता महसुस गर्थ्यो। जे होस एउटा हाङ्गा सम्म उसले पाउने आशा गरेको थियो। बिस्तारै उ उडेर एउटा हाङ्गामा बस्यो र गुण बनाउने सुरसार गर्न थाल्यो। त्याहाँ नि अरु पछिहरुको नजर फरक खालको रहेको आभास उसलाई भयो। तिनीहरुको नजरमा कतै न कतै उसमाथि सङ्काको नजर भएको आभास उसलाई भै राख्यो। उसलाई लाग्थ्यो हरेक आखाले गरिखान नसकेर फर्केको एउटा हुतिहाराको रुपमा गिज्याइ रहेको छ। तर बिबष उ सहनु बाहेक केहि गर्न सक्दैन। उसको मनमा सल्केको बिद्रोहको डडेलोलाई सहनसिलताले छोपेर उ संकल्प गर्छ कि उसले त्यो समाजमा उसको अस्तित्व स्थापित गराउने छ। उ अब अरुको कुरा प्रति अन्धो लाटो र बहिरो जस्तो भएर उ एकलव्य चेष्टामा आफ्नो लक्ष्य पथमा अगाडि बढ्छ। उसलाई थाहा छ संसारनै उथलपुथल भएनि उसको भंगेरिले उसलाई साथ दिनेछे। बिस्तारै उसले आफ्नो गुणलाई जिबन्त बनाउछ। उसको गुणमा बचेरा चिरबिर गर्न थाल्छन। केहि समयको अन्तरालमा उ आफ्ना बचेरालाई त्यहि जंगलको सयर गाराउन लान्छ। अब त भंगेरा-भंगेरि सिमलको डालिमा बसेर रमाउन थालेका छन।एको हो

Sagar's Dairy: The PlayBefore Elizabethan age we do not get bett...

Sagar's Dairy:  The PlayBefore Elizabethan age we do not get bett...:  The Play Before Elizabethan age we do not get better historical incidents of drama. However, it is not wrong to say that there was   no dra...

 The PlayBefore Elizabethan age we do not get better historical incidents of drama. However, it is not wrong to say that there was  no drama. There were three different types of drama: Liturgy, Miracle Play and Morality plays.

Liturgy is the play that was in existence in 12^th century. It is a drama that is presented inside the  four wall of the church. It used to have the story of the Bible. As it was performed in church, the subject matter was religious. The language of the drama is Latin. It has the performance of the certain part of Jesus life.

The developed form of the Liturgy has been understood as Miracle Plays are the developed form of Liturgy Play. It is developed from in the sense that it began its journey out of the church. Though it was not so far away from the church, it got open space for its performace. In another word, it is called as the Saint’s Play.  It presents the real or fictitious life story of a saint.  There are four cycle of the Miracle Play. They are York Chester Coverty and Wake field. The drama is written in iambic pentameter.

Morality plays are allegorical plays which were popular in 15^th and 16^th century the characters of the plays are abstract components. The characteristic of the morality plays are:

It is essentially an allegory. The presentation is verse narrative.

The protoganist represents either complete humanity or social class.

It is a dramatic presentation of conflict between good and bad force of human life or soul.

It is quite easy to perform as it is written in  vernacular language. A common person can easily understand it.

 

Interlude: A play, which was quite popular in 15^th and 16^th century, is also believed as not a completely different play rather a short performance done in between miracle or morality play. It is very short and a few characters are found to be in interlude.

Generally, English drama begins with the church. It has religious subject matter, and performed in the church. Liturgy and Miracle Plays went in the line of religious subject matters. However, there is a bit development in miracle plays as it moved outside from the church. The Morality plays moved in a closer to societal as it talked about the moral issues the virtues and vices. Such gradual development paid a great platform for the development of drama in Elizabethan age/s Before Elizabethan Age

What is the Soul? Critical approaches in Dualism

 What is the soul is a writing that presents a critical interpretation of dualism against monism in philosophy. Dualism is a metaphysical concept where people believe that there are two kinds of reality: physical reality, body and spiritual reality, immaterial. Russell examines such dualism in philosophical standpoint how mind and body exist. He critically examines the similarities and differences between body and soul in the form of mind and body.

        He vitally inspects the lacks of science. He articulates that science does not provide us all information that we desire to get. We have not got the information clearly that we had before science cane into existence. The line “…circumstances of recent advances in science is that each one makes us know less than we thought we did”, [1]presents the idea that modern science even does not know how much we were supposed to have known before science came into existence. Modern science cannot even know about body and soul concept.

        He further scans the concept of the body and mind and their interconnectivity. He writes, “…that the body is in time and space, but the soul is in time only”.

It is believed that body consists of the two things. It consists of both time and space. It means body goes for physical aspect that consists of both time span and entities, means the mass of an object. However, the soul is only time. It has only span or no physical mass; mere psychological or matter of thought, no more concretization.

Making headway, he looks at the concept of the body in the line of materialism. He believes materialism advocates for the body in a way that it has ‘its existence of self evidence’. He postulates that body physically exists as it has a self-proof; it exists in the world physically. A scientific proof is always there for such physical components.

He views the positions of the philosopher. He writes, “…the philosopher was apt to analyze it away”. He means to say that they are keen to know about it and explains about it this way or that way. They are not found to be doing. However, he views that the simplicities of the ideas have been lost. He points out,

[…] fine old simplicities are lost: physicists assure us that there is no such thing as matter, and psychologists assure us that there is no such thing as mind. This is an unprecedented occurrence.

 He strongly raises his idea that the dualistic concept of metaphysical materialism has been lost, as they want to establish their own significance in the field of philosophy. Now days, the dualism has been lost. There are tussle between physicists and psychologists. They argue quite differently. For, physicists matter is all-in-all and for psychologists mind is all-in-all. However, these two extremisms are not true.

        Going ahead, he wants to know about the reason behind the loss of dualism in philosophical arena. He finds, “…some of them attempt to reduce everything that seems to be mental activity to an activity of the body.

He derives the understanding that The physicist and psychologist try to conclude all mental activities to physical action. In this scientific world, everything is taken from factual occurrence. The mental action is always reflecting or manifest in physical action. However, author does not believe in such arguments.

        Likewise, he further examines what a body is. He states, “…hitherto called our body is really an elaborate scientific construction not corresponding to any physical reality”. He examines that we have existing history that we have a physical body. it is only construction of science as it has described with different metabolic and organic component that science can explain.

        He looks at materialists understanding. He encounters, “…a certain degree of success reduce the activities of the mind to those of the body, he cannot explain away the fact that the body itself is merely a convenient concept invented by the mind”. Russell questions the limitation of the materialist who reduces mental action to physical actions. However, he fails to explain about the reliable reason behind of it.

        After talking about some laps of materialists, he looks at dualism. He speaks, “…mind is an emanation of body, and body is an invention of mind”. He explains the springs of rotation in finding the meaning of both and their connectivity in actual word. It postulates how they are interconnected with each other.

        A common person thinks about universality of the matter. He writes:

“The plain man thinks that material objects must certainly exist, since they are evident to the senses. Whatever else may be doubted, it is certain that anything you can bump into must be real; this is the plain man's metaphysic. This is all very well, but the physicist comes along and shows that you never bump into anything.”

It presents that normal people concept is that anything that can be sense by sensory organ is always true, as they exist in the world. Anything that we meet by chance are real for us. However the physician tells that we donot meet anything by chance.

        He further examines the duality between mind and body. They both have same utility and supremacy. He mentions, “Mind and matter were something like the lion and the unicorn fighting for the crown.” He means that modern science cannot give exact idea about the mind as it fails to talk about matter exactly/ It is just like a battle that never comes to an end. It only forms certain inventions. it is beneficial to collect certain events  And they are always relative.

        He explains the importance of both mind and matter. He inscribes, “…both mind and matter are merely convenient ways of organizing events.”Russell questions both physicists and psychologists that they give preference to one particular entity. Nevertheless, he thinks that both work together in the universe for organizing the events. They really have coexistence.

He wants to examines the reason for  the differences between metaphysical materialism and materialism. He marks, “...the opponents of materialism have always been actuated by two main desires: the first to prove that the mind is immortal, and the second to prove that the ultimate power in the universe is mental rather than physical.” He examines why metaphysical materialism is different from materialism. The first is that they consider the mind is immortal and second is to prove the world works is mental.

        Finally, he tells how one has to think about future aspects of human life and metaphysical concepts. He writes, “  …on the earth's surface anything happens because somebody wishes it to happen. And since our power on the earth's surface is entirely dependent upon the sun, we could hardly realize any of our wishes if the sun grew could. It is of course rash to dogmatize as to what science may achieve in the future”

He agrees with materialistic concept that matter is everything. It is not necessary to think that what happens anything above the surface of the earth. It is beyound the capabilities of people then.

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[1]  The lines are taken  from course book class 11 and direct quotations are from The chapter: What is Soul?